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31/12/2019

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25/11/2019

The Love of Our ...52

This test ( Ammonia test ) measures the concentration of ammonia in the blood. Ammonia is a chemical produced by bacteria in the intestine and by cells in the body during the processing of proteins. Ammonia is a poisonous waste product which is normally transported to the liver, and then converted into two chemicals called urea and glutamine. The urea is then carried by the blood to the kidneys, where it is excreted in the urine. If this does not work correctly, ammonia can build up in the blood and pass into the brain.

Accumulation of ammonia and other compounds normally broken down by the liver can cause a condition affecting the brain called hepatic encephalopathy. This causes symptoms such as confusion, disorientation, drowsiness, and eventually coma and even death. Infants and children with increased blood ammonia concentrations may vomit frequently, be irritable, and be increasingly tired. If left untreated, they may develop seizures, breathing difficulty, and fall into a coma.

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04/10/2019

11/09/2019

The Love of Our ...47

Red blood cells (RBCs), also called erythrocytes, are cells that circulate in the blood and carry oxygen throughout the body. The RBC count totals the number of red blood cells that are present in your sample of blood. It is one test among several that is included in a complete blood count (CBC) and is often used in the general evaluation of a person's health.

Blood is made up of a few different types of cells suspended in fluid called plasma. In addition to RBCs, there are white blood cells (WBCs) and platelets. These cells are produced in the bone marrow and are released into the bloodstream as they mature. RBCs typically make up about 40% of the blood volume. RBCs contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds to oxygen and enables RBCs to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and organs of the body. RBCs also help transport a small portion of carbon dioxide, a waste product of cell metabolism, from those tissues and organs back to the lungs, where it is expelled.

The typical lifespan of an RBC is 120 days. Thus the bone marrow must continually produce new RBCs to replace those that age and degrade or are lost through bleeding. A number of conditions can affect RBC production and some conditions may result in significant bleeding. Other disorders may affect the lifespan of RBCs in circulation, especially if the RBCs are deformed due to an inherited or acquired defect or abnormality. These conditions may lead to a rise or drop in the RBC count. Changes in the RBC count usually mirror changes in other RBC tests, including the hematocrit and hemoglobin level.

If RBCs are lost or destroyed faster than they can be replaced, if bone marrow production is disrupted, or if the RBCs produced do not function normally, or do not contain enough hemoglobin, then you may develop anemia, which affects the amount of oxygen reaching tissues.
If too many RBCs are produced and released, then you can develop polycythemia. This can cause thicker blood, decreased blood flow and related problems, such as headache, dizziness, problems with vision, and even excessive clotting or heart attack.

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05/09/2019

The Love of Our ...43

Lactate is one of the substances produced by cells as the body turns food into energy (cell metabolism), with the highest level of production occurring in the muscles. Depending on pH, it is sometimes present in the form of lactic acid. However, with the neutral pH maintained by the body, most of it will be present in the blood in the form of lactate. This test measures the amount of lactate in the blood or, less commonly, in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Normally, the level of lactate in blood and CSF is low. Lactate is produced in excess by muscle cells, red blood cells, brain, and other tissues when there is insufficient oxygen at the cellular level or when the primary way of producing energy in the body's cells is disrupted. Excess lactate can lead to lactic acidosis.

The principal means of producing energy within cells occurs in the mitochondria, tiny power stations inside most cells of the body. The mitochondria use glucose and oxygen to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the body's primary source of energy. This is called aerobic energy production.

Whenever cellular oxygen levels decrease and/or the mitochondria are not functioning properly, the body must turn to less efficient energy production to metabolize glucose and produce ATP. This is called anaerobic energy production and the primary byproduct is lactic acid, which is processed (metabolized) by the liver.

Lactic acid can accumulate in the body and blood when it is produced faster than the liver can break it down.

Excess lactate may indicate one or a combination of the following:

Lack of oxygen (hypoxia)
The presence of a condition that causes increased lactate production
The presence of a condition that causes decreased clearance of lactate from the body
When lactic acid production increases significantly, the affected person is said to have hyperlactatemia, which can then progress to lactic acidosis as more lactic acid accumulates. The body can often compensate for the effects of hyperlactatemia, but lactic acidosis can be severe enough to disrupt a person's acid/base (pH) balance and cause symptoms such as muscular weakness, rapid breathing, nausea, vomiting, sweating, and even coma.

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03/09/2019

The Love of Our ...40

Fungi are microbes that exist in nature as one-celled yeasts or as branching filamentous molds (also may be spelled "moulds"). Only about 20 to 25 species of fungi are common causes of infection. Fungal tests detect infections and sometimes identify the fungus and help guide treatment.

Fungal infections range from superficial skin infections to serious deep tissue, blood, lung, or systemic diseases.

Superficial fungal infections are very common. They may cause nail infections or itchy, red, scaly skin infections such as those commonly known as athlete's foot, jock itch, and ringworm, or yeast infections that cause white patches in the mouth (thrush) or vaginal itching and discharge. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), almost 75% of women will have at least one yeast infection in their lifetime.
Lung, blood, and systemic infections: less commonly, fungi cause serious lung infections, blood infections (septicemia), or systemic infections that can affect any organ in the body. Fungal lung infections typically start with the accidental inhalation of microscopic fungal spores. While anyone can get a serious lung or systemic fungal infection, most affected people will only experience mild to moderate flu-like symptoms. However, people who are immunocompromised, such as those with HIV/AIDS, organ transplant recipients, and people with an underlying condition such as diabetes or lung disease are at an increased risk of having a severe fungal infection, a systemic infection, and/or recurrent infections.
Fungal tests are used to detect and identify fungi in order to diagnose infections and help guide treatment. Fungal testing typically includes a microscopic examination of the sample on a slide, sometimes using a preparation or stain to aid in detection of fungal elements. This may be sufficient to determine that the infection is due to a fungus and, with superficial infections, no further testing may be required.

However, in cases of persistent, deep, or systemic infections when a more definitive diagnosis is needed, the microscopic exam may be followed by additional tests, such as culture and susceptibility testing, antigen or antibody tests, or molecular tests that detect fungal genetic material.

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03/08/2019

Please, don't disappoint your science teacher...

19/07/2019

The Love of Our ...7

A blood film allows the evaluation of white blood cells (WBCs, leucocytes), red blood cells (RBCs, erythrocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes). These cell are produced and mature in the bone marrow and are released into the bloodstream when needed. WBCs’ main function is to fight infection, while RBCs carry oxygen to the whole of the body. Platelets appear as small cell fragments and, when activated, stick together to form a plug as one of the first steps to stop bleeding. The number and type of each cell present in the blood changes but is normally maintained by the body within specific ranges. Values can change at times of illness or stress; intense exercise or can also affect cell counts.

A blood film is a snapshot of the that are present in the blood at the time that the sample is obtained. To produce a blood film, a single drop of blood is spread in a thin layer across a glass slide, dried, and then with a special dye. Once the stain has dried the slide is looked at under a by a Medical or .

The drop of on the slide contains millions of RBCs, thousands of WBCs, and hundreds of thousands of platelets. Under the microscope, the stained WBCs can be easily seen and counted to estimate the number of each type of cell present. In addition, the size, shape and general appearance of the cells can be compared to that of “normal” cells. It is possible to distinguish between the five different types of WBCs and to find their relative percentages by counting 100 consecutive cells. During this examination, the size, shape and colour (indicators of haemoglobin content) of the RBCs can be measured and the number of platelets estimated.

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16/07/2019

The Love of Our ...4

The FBC is a very common test used to screen for, help diagnose, and to monitor a variety of conditions.

If a patient is having symptoms associated with , such as fatigue or weakness, or has an infection, inflammation, bruising, or bleeding, then the doctor may order a FBC to help diagnose the cause. Significant increases in WBCs may help confirm that an infection is present and suggest the need for further testing to identify its cause. Decreases in the number of RBCs (anaemia) can be further evaluated by changes in size or shape of the RBCs to help determine if the cause might be decreased production, increased loss, or increased destruction of RBCs. A haemoglobin that is low or extremely high may need further investigation.

Many conditions will result in increases or decreases in the cell populations. Some of these conditions may require treatment, while others will resolve on their own. Some diseases, such as cancer (and chemotherapy treatment), can affect bone marrow production of cells, increasing the production of one cell at the expense of others or decreasing overall cell production. Some medications can decrease WBC counts, and some vitamin and mineral deficiencies can cause anaemia. The FBC test may be requested by the doctor on a regular basis to monitor these conditions and drug treatments.

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15/07/2019

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A urinalysis is a group of physical, chemical, and microscopic tests. The tests detect and/or measure several substances in the urine, such as byproducts of normal and abnormal metabolism, cells, cellular fragments, and bacteria.

Urine is produced by the kidneys, two fist-sized organs located on either side of the spine at the bottom of the ribcage. The kidneys filter wastes out of the blood, help regulate the amount of water in the body, and conserve proteins, electrolytes, and other compounds that the body can reuse. Anything that is not needed is eliminated in the urine, traveling from the kidneys through ureters to the bladder and then through the urethra and out of the body. Urine is generally yellow and relatively clear, but each time a person urinates, the color, quantity, concentration, and content of the urine will be slightly different because of varying constituents.

Many disorders may be detected in their early stages by identifying substances that are not normally present in the urine and/or by measuring abnormal levels of certain substances. Some examples include glucose, protein, bilirubin, red blood cells, white blood cells, crystals, and bacteria. They may be present because:

There is an elevated level of the substance in the blood and the body responds by trying to eliminate the excess in the urine.
Kidney disease is present.
There is a urinary tract infection present, as in the case of bacteria and white blood cells.

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