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Medical Knowledge Chia sẻ kiến thức về y học, tâm lý học cho mọi người

Song ngữ khí máu động mạch P1.Arterial blood gas, ABG, is a blood test that measures the levels of blood oxygen and carb...
26/08/2023

Song ngữ khí máu động mạch P1.

Arterial blood gas, ABG, is a blood test that measures the levels of blood oxygen and carbon dioxide, as well as blood pH, in a sample drawn from an artery, most often from the radial artery or femoral artery. ABG is typically ordered in emergency medicine, intensive care, or by pulmonologists, to evaluate respiratory, circulatory, and metabolic functions. For routine blood tests, veins are usually favored over arteries because they sit closer to the skin’s surface, have thinner walls, larger lumens, and thus are more accessible. More importantly, the lower blood pressure in veins makes it easier to stop bleeding, reducing the chance of significant blood loss. Arterial blood sampling requires greater technical competency to avoid complications. However, when it comes to carbon dioxide and oxygen measurements, arterial blood is generally more reliable because it comes directly from the heart, after being oxygenated in the lungs, whereas venous blood is pooled from various body tissues after delivering oxygen and collecting metabolic waste. Venous pH is slightly lower than arterial pH, but the 2 values often correlate well. Arterial blood samples must be placed on ice and analyzed immediately to avoid errors. Typically, automated blood gas analyzers are used and results are delivered within 15 min. The following parameters are directly measured: pH, oxygen partial pressure (PaO2), and carbon dioxide partial pressure (PaCO2). Bicarbonate and base excess/deficit are then calculated from measured values of pH and PaCO2. Oxygen saturation can be calculated, or measured directly with an oximeter. PaO2 is an indicator of the patient’s oxygenation status, while PaCO2 provides information on ventilation and acid-base status.

Khí máu động mạch, ABG, là xét nghiệm máu đo nồng độ oxy và carbon dioxide trong máu, cũng như độ pH của máu, trong một mẫu máu được lấy từ động mạch, thường là từ động mạch quay hoặc động mạch đùi. ABG thường được chỉ định tại khoa cấp cứu, hồi sức tích cực hoặc bởi bác sĩ khoa nội hô hấp, để đánh giá các chức năng hô hấp, tuần hoàn và chuyển hóa. Đối với các xét nghiệm máu thường quy, mẫu máu thường được lấy từ tĩnh mạch vì chúng nằm gần bề mặt da hơn, có thành mỏng hơn, lòng mạch rộng hơn và do đó dễ tiếp cận hơn so với động mạch. Quan trọng hơn, huyết áp tại tĩnh mạch thấp hơn động mạch, giúp cầm máu dễ dàng hơn, giảm thiểu nguy cơ mất máu đáng kể. Lấy mẫu máu từ động mạch đòi hỏi nhân viên y tế phải có năng lực kỹ thuật cao hơn để tránh xảy ra các biến chứng cho người bệnh. Tuy nhiên, khi đo nồng độ carbon dioxide và oxy trong máu, máu động mạch thường đáng tin hơn vì nó đến trực tiếp từ tim, sau khi nhận được oxy từ phổi, trong khi máu tĩnh mạch được kết tập từ từ các mô của cơ thể sau khi cung cấp oxy (cho các mô) và nhận lại chất thải chuyển hóa (từ các mô). pH máu tĩnh mạch thấp hơn một chút so với pH máu động mạch, nhưng 2 giá trị này thường tương quan tốt với nhau. Các mẫu máu động mạch phải được đặt trên đá và được phân tích ngay để tránh sai sót. Thông thường, máy phân tích khí máu tự động được sử dụng và trả kết quả trong vòng 15 phút. Các thông số sau được đo trực tiếp: pH, áp suất riêng phần của oxy (PaO2) và áp suất riêng phần của carbon dioxide (PaCO2). Sau đó, nồng độ bicarbonate và kiềm dư/kiềm thiếu được tính từ các giá trị pH và PaCO2 đo được. Độ bão hòa oxy có thể được tính hoặc đo trực tiếp bằng máy đo oxy. PaO2 là chỉ báo về tình trạng oxy hóa của bệnh nhân, trong khi PaCO2 cung cấp thông tin về tình trạng thông khí và kiềm-toan.

21/08/2023

Song ngữ đau dây thần kinh sinh ba (hoàn chỉnh)

Song ngữ: Đau dầy thần kinh sinh ba (phần 2)Compression of trigeminal nerve is often brought about by a pressing blood v...
18/08/2023

Song ngữ: Đau dầy thần kinh sinh ba (phần 2)

Compression of trigeminal nerve is often brought about by a pressing blood vessel, but a tumor or other abnormal structures can also be the cause. Injury to the nerve may also result from facial trauma, stroke, facial surgery complication, or conditions such as multiple sclerosis. Diagnosis is difficult as many other disorders may produce similar pain patterns and must be ruled out. MRI scans can reveal tumors or multiple sclerosis lesions. A high-resolution, three-dimensional MRI or newer scanning techniques can detect nerve compression by a blood vessel. People with TN type 1 typically respond well to anticonvulsant medicines. Pain relievers are not usually effective, although a small number of patients with TN2 do respond to opioids. Muscle relaxants and Botox injections may be helpful to some. Most medications, however, lose their effectiveness over time. A number of surgical procedures are available to decompress the nerve, or to sever the nerve to block pain. Microvascular decompression surgery is most effective but also most invasive and carries more serious risks. Rhizotomy procedures are less invasive but because they deactivate the nerve to stop pain, the nerve’s normal function of conveying sensation is also lost, resulting in facial numbness. The effect of rhizotomy is also shorter-lasting, leading to sooner recurrence of pain. Finally, some patients may benefit from exercise, yoga, aroma therapy, meditation, vitamin or nutritional therapy, and acupuncture or chiropractic treatments.

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Song ngữ: Đau dầy thần kinh sinh ba (phần 1)Trigeminal neuralgia, TN, is a chronic pain syndrome caused by compression o...
16/08/2023

Song ngữ: Đau dầy thần kinh sinh ba (phần 1)

Trigeminal neuralgia, TN, is a chronic pain syndrome caused by compression of the trigeminal nerve. The trigeminal nerve has 3 branches, each conveys sensation from a section of the face, including paranasal sinuses and the nasal and oral cavities. The location of the pain varies depending on the branch that is affected, but more than one branch can be compressed at a time. There are two trigeminal nerves, one on each side of the face. Typically (though not always), only one nerve, and hence one side of the face, is affected. The most common type of TN, named TN1, is characterized by sporadic episodes of excruciating facial pain that last anywhere from seconds to minutes, and can occur up to a hundred times a day. The pain is often described as intense, stabbing or electric shock-like. The episodes can be triggered by facial movements or contacts with the face, such as when washing, shaving, brushing teeth, applying makeup, eating, drinking, talking, or even upon light touch or exposure to a light breeze. There is also an atypical form of TN, named TN2, which manifests as a constant, similar, but less intense pain than TN1. Some patients may experience both TN1 and TN2. The condition typically evolves in cycles, with periods of frequent episodes followed by periods of partial or complete remission with little or no pain. With time, however, the pain attacks often intensify and pain-free periods become shorter and less frequent. TN can occur in anyone but most commonly affects women over the age of 50.

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14/08/2023

Sinh lý giấc ngủ (song ngữ hoàn chỉnh)

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Song ngữ: sinh lý giấc ngủ P.3The need to sleep increases with illness, as well as cognitively stimulating or physically...
11/08/2023

Song ngữ: sinh lý giấc ngủ P.3

The need to sleep increases with illness, as well as cognitively stimulating or physically demanding activities. Circadian rhythm is the body’s biological clock for the sleep-wake cycle. It determines the timing of sleep. The master clock is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, the SCN, of the hypothalamus. It receives light inputs from the retina and resets the clock everyday accordingly to the day-night cycle. The SCN is most active during the day, and least active at night. The sleep-promoting region is located in the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus, VLPO, of the hypothalamus. The VLPO is inhibited by the SCN and activated by adenosine. The VLPO uses GABA to inhibit wake-promoting regions of the brain, which include multiple nuclei in the reticular formation and posterior hypothalamus. Of these regions, it’s important to note the tuberomammillary nucleus, TMN, and the hypocretin neurons. The TMN consists mainly of histaminergic neurons, but it also produces GABA that inhibits VLPO in return. This mutual inhibition is the basis of the “switch” between sleep and wake. The hypocretin neurons stimulate the TMN, and are crucial for maintaining wakefulness. The loss of these neurons results in narcolepsy. During the day, the SCN inhibits the VLPO and stimulates hypocretin neurons, driving the switch towards the waking state. By the end of the day, when SCN activity is lowest and pressure to sleep is highest, VLPO is activated, and sleep is “switched” on. There is a similar switch between REM and non-REM sleep, mediated by mutually inhibiting REM-on and REM-off neurons in the pons.

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Song ngữ: Sinh lý giấc ngủ - phần 2N3 is deeper than N2. Slow delta-waves dominate. Muscles relax, vital signs are at th...
09/08/2023

Song ngữ: Sinh lý giấc ngủ - phần 2

N3 is deeper than N2. Slow delta-waves dominate. Muscles relax, vital signs are at their lowest; and it is difficult to wake the sleeper. N3 is typically followed by a transition to N2 before REM sleep occurs. As its name suggests, REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movements under the eyelids. It’s also known as “paradoxical” sleep because the brain’s EEG is very much similar to that of the waking state. REM sleep is when most dreams occur, as well as some autonomic reflexes. Vital signs are up, but there is a total inhibition of skeletal muscles, which prevents sleepers from acting out their dreams. This sequence of stages repeats itself 4 to 5 times in a typical night. As the night progresses, the duration of N2 and REM sleep increases, while N3 decreases. The amount and timing of sleep is regulated by 2 major factors: homeostatic drive and circadian rhythm. Homeostatic drive is basically the body’s need for sleep, or pressure to sleep. It is lowest after a good night sleep, then starts to build up as we awaken. The need to sleep will continue to rise until sleep occurs. Adenosine is thought to be a substance that accumulates with waking hours and drives the pressure to sleep. Interestingly, caffeine appears to promote wakefulness by acting as an antagonist of adenosine.

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07/08/2023

Từ nay lịch đăng bài song ngữ định kỳ của page là thứ 2 - 4 - 6. M.n dành chút thời gian theo dõi nha. Hãy chia sẻ các bài viết vì nó free ạ.

Song ngữ: Sinh lý giấc ngủ - phần 1Sleep is a temporary state of unconsciousness in which the brain is primarily respons...
07/08/2023

Song ngữ: Sinh lý giấc ngủ - phần 1

Sleep is a temporary state of unconsciousness in which the brain is primarily responsive to internal, rather than external stimuli. Unlike other states of unconsciousness such as coma or general anesthesia, sleep is a natural, cyclic process that is self-regulated and easily reversible to wakefulness. Brain activity can be recorded in the form of electroencephalogram, EEG, which measures electrical activities in the superficial layers of the cerebral cortex. Different stages of consciousness correspond to different types of brain waves. A fully awake and alert brain produces high-frequency low-voltage beta-waves. As consciousness decreases, brain waves become progressively slower in frequency and higher in voltage. There are 2 major phases of sleep: rapid eye movement, REM, sleep, and non-rapid eye movement, non-REM, sleep. Non-REM sleep progresses in 3 stages: N1, N2 and N3. N1 is the transitional state between wakefulness and sleep. The EEG is dominated by alpha-waves. The sleeper is easily awoken with light stimulation. N1 typically lasts a few minutes. The next stage is N2, a deeper sleep state, where stronger stimuli are required to produce awakening. Brain activity is slower and more irregular, with short bursts of “sleep spindles” and “K-complexes.” It is believed that memory consolidation occurs during this stage.

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05/08/2023

Đáp ứng thích ứng stress (song ngữ hoàn chỉnh)

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Y học song ngữ: Đáp ứng thích ứng stress (phần 3)In addition, cortisol maintains higher blood pressure by increasing the...
04/08/2023

Y học song ngữ: Đáp ứng thích ứng stress (phần 3)

In addition, cortisol maintains higher blood pressure by increasing the sensitivity of vascular smooth muscle to vasoconstrictors and inhibiting the release of vasodilators. At the same time, cortisol also reduces inflammation and suppresses the immune system. Stage 3 - Exhaustion: Stress response is meant to restore the body’s homeostasis, but a chronic or repeated stressor will eventually exhaust the body’s resources, causing a progressive wasting of muscles. The HPA axis may become dysregulated. A sustained elevation of blood pressure and heart rate may lead to cardiovascular diseases. Prolonged inhibition of digestive and urinary functions may cause gastrointestinal and renal disorders. Chronic stress also weakens the immune system, making the body more susceptible to infections.

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Y học song ngữ: Đáp ứng thích ứng stress (phần 2)Stage 2 - Resistance or Adaptation. This stage is due mainly to the slo...
03/08/2023

Y học song ngữ: Đáp ứng thích ứng stress (phần 2)

Stage 2 - Resistance or Adaptation. This stage is due mainly to the slow response - the activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. In response to stressors, the hypothalamus produces corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). CRH promotes the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone, ACTH, from the anterior pituitary. ACTH then stimulates the production of cortisol by the adrenal cortex. Cortisol, known as the stress hormone, helps the body stay on high alert to deal with long-term stress. Cortisol overall effect is to increase energy supply: - In the liver, it promotes catabolism of glycogen to glucose. - In the muscles, it acts to reduce glucose uptake and consumption, and increase degradation of muscle proteins into amino acids, which can then be used to synthesize glucose, fats, or generate energy. - In adipose tissue, cortisol promotes lipid breakdown for additional energy. - In the pancreas, it acts to decrease insulin and increase glucagon secretion, which together leads to increased blood glucose.

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